Existential types (any keyword) in Swift - Time & Space Complexity

Time Complexity: Existential types (any keyword)

O(n)

Understanding Time Complexity

We want to understand how using existential types with the any keyword affects the time it takes for a program to run.

Specifically, we ask: How does the program's work grow when we use any types with different input sizes?

Scenario Under Consideration

Analyze the time complexity of the following code snippet.

protocol Drawable {
    func draw()
}

func drawAll(_ items: [any Drawable]) {
    for item in items {
        item.draw()
    }
}

// Usage:
// let shapes: [any Drawable] = [Circle(), Square(), ...]
// drawAll(shapes)
    

This code calls the draw() method on each item in an array of existential types.

Identify Repeating Operations

Identify the loops, recursion, array traversals that repeat.

• Primary operation: Looping through the array and calling draw() on each element.
• How many times: Once for each element in the input array.

How Execution Grows With Input

As the number of items grows, the number of draw() calls grows the same way.

Input Size (n)	Approx. Operations
10	10 draw calls
100	100 draw calls
1000	1000 draw calls

Pattern observation: The work grows directly in proportion to the number of items.

Final Time Complexity

Time Complexity: O(n)

This means the time to run grows linearly with the number of items in the array.

Common Mistake

[X] Wrong: "Using any types makes the loop slower in a way that changes the overall time complexity."

[OK] Correct: While any types add some small overhead for dynamic dispatch, the number of operations still grows linearly with input size, so the overall time complexity remains O(n).

Interview Connect

Understanding how existential types affect performance helps you explain trade-offs clearly and shows you can reason about code efficiency in real projects.

Self-Check

What if we changed the array to hold concrete types instead of any Drawable? How would the time complexity change?

Practice

1. What does the any keyword indicate in Swift when used with a protocol type?

easy

A. It creates a new protocol that inherits from the original.

B. It marks the type as existential, allowing any value conforming to the protocol.

C. It restricts the type to only one specific conforming type.

D. It converts the protocol into a concrete class.

Solution

1. Step 1: Understand the role of any in Swift

   The any keyword is used to mark a type as existential, meaning it can hold any value that conforms to a given protocol.

2. Step 2: Compare with other options

   The incorrect options describe behaviors unrelated to any. It does not create new protocols, restrict to one type, or convert protocols to classes.

3. Final Answer:

   It marks the type as existential, allowing any value conforming to the protocol. -> Option B

4. Quick Check:

   any means existential type [OK]

Hint: Remember: any means 'any conforming type' [OK]

Common Mistakes:

• Thinking any creates a new protocol
• Confusing any with type restriction
• Assuming any converts protocols to classes

2. Which of the following is the correct syntax to declare a variable that can hold any value conforming to the protocol Drawable using existential types?

easy

A. var shape: Drawable

B. var shape: Drawable & any

C. var shape: any Drawable

D. var shape: Drawable<any>

Solution

1. Step 1: Recall the syntax for existential types

   In Swift, to declare a variable that can hold any value conforming to a protocol, you use any ProtocolName. So here, it is any Drawable.

2. Step 2: Analyze each option

   var shape: Drawable misses any, so it is not explicit existential. var shape: Drawable & any and var shape: Drawable<any> have incorrect syntax. Only var shape: any Drawable uses the correct syntax.

3. Final Answer:

   var shape: any Drawable -> Option C

4. Quick Check:

   Existential syntax = any Protocol [OK]

Hint: Use any before protocol name for existential types [OK]

Common Mistakes:

• Omitting any keyword
• Placing any after protocol name
• Using angle brackets incorrectly

3. What will be the output of the following Swift code?

protocol Greetable {
    func greet() -> String
}

struct Person: Greetable {
    func greet() -> String { "Hello" }
}

let greeter: any Greetable = Person()
print(greeter.greet())

medium

A. Hello

B. Error: Protocol method not implemented

C. Runtime error

D. nil

Solution

1. Step 1: Understand the protocol and struct

   The protocol Greetable requires a greet() method returning a String. The struct Person implements this method returning "Hello".

2. Step 2: Analyze the existential usage and output

   The variable greeter is declared as any Greetable and assigned a Person instance. Calling greeter.greet() calls the implemented method and returns "Hello".

3. Final Answer:

   Hello -> Option A

4. Quick Check:

   Existential calls implemented method = "Hello" [OK]

Hint: Existential calls protocol methods on conforming instance [OK]

Common Mistakes:

• Expecting a compile or runtime error
• Thinking protocol methods are not accessible
• Assuming nil is returned

4. Identify the error in the following Swift code using existential types and fix it:

protocol Runnable {
    func run()
}

struct Dog: Runnable {
    func run() { print("Dog runs") }
}

var runner: Runnable = Dog()
runner.run()

medium

A. Missing any keyword before Runnable in variable declaration.

B. Dog does not conform to Runnable protocol.

C. run() method should return a value.

D. Variable runner should be a constant (let) instead of var.

Solution

1. Step 1: Check variable declaration syntax

   Since Swift 5.7, existential types require the any keyword explicitly. The declaration var runner: Runnable is invalid; it should be var runner: any Runnable.

2. Step 2: Verify other parts

   Dog conforms correctly, run() returns Void (allowed), and var is allowed. So only missing any is the error.

3. Final Answer:

   Missing any keyword before Runnable in variable declaration. -> Option A

4. Quick Check:

   Existential types need any keyword [OK]

Hint: Add any before protocol for existential variables [OK]

Common Mistakes:

• Omitting any keyword
• Thinking protocol conformance is missing
• Expecting run() to return a value

5. You want to write a function that accepts any value conforming to the Codable protocol and returns its JSON string representation. Which is the correct way to declare the function parameter using existential types?

hard

A. func encodeToJSON(value: Codable & any) -> String

B. func encodeToJSON(value: Codable) -> String

C. func encodeToJSON(value: T) -> String

D. func encodeToJSON(value: any Codable) -> String

Solution

1. Step 1: Understand existential vs generic parameters

   Using any Codable declares an existential type parameter that can accept any value conforming to Codable. This matches the question requirement.

2. Step 2: Analyze each option

   func encodeToJSON(value: Codable) -> String omits any, which is invalid syntax for existential types. func encodeToJSON(value: T) -> String uses generics, which is valid but not existential. func encodeToJSON(value: Codable & any) -> String has incorrect syntax. func encodeToJSON(value: any Codable) -> String is correct.

3. Final Answer:

   func encodeToJSON(value: any Codable) -> String -> Option D

4. Quick Check:

   Existential parameter syntax = any Protocol [OK]

Hint: Use any before protocol for existential function parameters [OK]

Common Mistakes:

• Using generics instead of existential types
• Omitting any keyword
• Incorrect syntax with & or angle brackets